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The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492

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Alfred W. Crosby, in his 1972 book The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492, represents a relatively recent trend among historians who are beginning to take a closer look at the first contacts between European and American peoples and the long-term cultural effects of that encounter in both Native American and Old World European societies. For generations the traditional historical perspective has argued that American history began with Columbus. There has been only slight relevance given to probable Viking landfall by Lief Ericson on North America and even less credence to earlier Celtic voyages by Brenden.
This idea--that native cultures in the Americas prior to 1492 have no significance until touched by a European presence--is being called into question today by Crosby and others like him, who look at the aftermath of Columbus and the "age of exploration" with a multidisciplinary approach by bringing together the combined research of anthropologists, archeologists and historians.

Crosby begins his work with a look at the evolution of life in the Western hemisphere and some of its very basic differences to that with which the Europeans were familiar. He also addresses issues that faced sixteenth century Europeans in their attempt to integrate the Americas into their Christian and Aristotelian worldview, pointing out that: "The uniqueness of the New World called into question the whole Christian cosmogony." The task of categorizing the resources of the New World led to further questions for the Europeans: how to find a place, in their established hierarchies of man and nature, that would both satisfy the missionary zeal of the Church and the mercenary zeal of the Courts of Eurpoe. These same questions and issues, and the consequences of some of the more Eurocentric answers, have in one way or another impacted both European and American societies for the last five hundred years.

One of the most impressive things about Crosby's book is his multi-scholastic approach to his subject. He draws on an immense list of sources for his material; sources not only historical, but scientific and philosophic as well. Not only does he catalog the variety of plant and animal life that the Old World transplanted to the new and vice versa, but he draws historical implications from the exchanges as well. Perhaps the most interesting exchange that Crosby delineates is the consequence of the introduction of Old World pathogens--like smallpox, measles, diptheria, pneumonia, typhus and various other epidemics--among the non-resistant peoples native to the Americas. He deals at length with the reasons for the epidemic spread of these diseases and their devastating effects on Native populations.

He also very clearly covers both sides of the controversy, the Unitarian and the Columbian theories, surrounding the transmittal of syphilis from New World to Old, and goes on to describe the consequent effects of that disease on Europe from the sixteenth century onward. Most commendable here is Crosby's attitude, wherein he presents all his research clearly and without obvious bias, allowing his readers to draw their own conclusions from the wealth of material he has put forth. He concludes the chapter on syphilis with a number of fascinating accounts of the bacterium as it struck Europe in the following centuries, of the various treatments and "cures" and of the social impact of such a virulent venereal disease.

If Crosby can be criticized at all it might be said that he is writing primarily for other scholars. His references and vocabulary--both impressive--might be intimidating to the average reader. His topic, however, and this alternate perspective on the "discovery" of America and the impact of its "conquest" are issues of which even non-historians should be aware. In that respect Crosby must be congratulated for being a leader in bringing together multiple disciplines in socio-historiography.

The Columbian Exchange, written by Alfred Crosby, is an in depth look at the biological and cultural consequences of Columbus's discovery of the New World. The Columbian Exchange focuses on the negative aspects of European exploration and exploitation of the Americas. Alfred Crosby focuses on the dependence on different foods, the changes in lifestyles, and the effects that the European flora and fauna had on the new world, and how it changed the Americas forever. His main point in this book was that the most important changes wrought by the European expansion into the new world were biological in nature, not social, political, or cultural.

To clearly understand Crosby's point of view, we must understand him and his writing style. His background in history and health give some credence to his opinions and research. The book states that Crosby is a Research Associate at the University of California Medical Center, History of Health Sciences. He mostly uses empirical evidence and statistics to base his claims, but sometimes resorts to his own opinions and guesswork. He also uses tables and maps to help the reader picture history the way that he sees it. He relies heavily on other contemporary sources such as Del Castillo and Agiler to base many of his claims, but cites the exact references to these outside sources.

Though Crosby does a good job of making this book interesting and available to people who are not historians or biologists, he could have done some things differently to make the book more approachable to the average person. He has a tendency to deviate from the subject matter, and does not always provide enough evidence for his claims.

In some cases, these tangents allow us to better understand the point he is trying to make, but mostly it makes trudging through the endless examples and repetitiveness a chore. For instance, his many examples of how the European animals spread throughout the New World seemed very dry and repetitive. Crosby just kept expounding upon certain pieces of evidence, even after he had made his point. I think that in the hands of another author, this book could have been ninety pages with little loss of content.

He also seemed to be stretching for evidence and was using a lot of guesswork in chapter five when he was trying to relate the new food types with the sudden growth in population. Sure, it sounds good in theory, but he needs more clear-cut evidence to support his claims to convince the reader of the truth of his statements.

In chapter four, Crosby claims that syphilis in Europe came from the new world, without the proof to back up his claims. There are a few other theories as to where syphilis came from, but without evidence backing up his claim, how are we to know which one is correct, if any? He tries to support his theory with a table of the diseases present throughout time, but it is not enough to convince the reader that his is the correct theory, or that the other's aren't.

Another thing that got to me about the book is that he claims that The Columbian Exchange has had a worldwide effect. The book may present some of the changes that were wrought of the European expansion into the Americas, but it was far from worldwide in it effects. In fact, the "far reaching" biological consequences consisted of a small part of the New World, mainly Central America, the West Indies, Southern North America, and Northern South America.

To his credit, he stays focused on what the book was about: The biological aspects of the European expansion into the New World. He didn't deviate much into the culture, social, or economic impact that the discovery of the New World had on both worlds. His focus on how the Spanish would not have had such success in the New World if it were not for the diseases that they brought with them, and the various elements of surprise that the Spaniards had over the natives.

To sum up, I would have to say that this book is good in getting its point across, but for all other purposes, it was mediocre. He did a good job of supporting the claims he made with evidence, though in some places this made it tough to read. Some of the aspects of the connection between the biology and history of the region were a little deep, and that would drive away the average reader. I would recommend it to those looking for an educational look at the causes of the changes in the New World, but for the average for-fun reader, I would say stay away from it.

This would be an excellent book for the hardcore historian or the equally enthusiastic biologist, because it builds a neat and entertaining bridge between the two. Historically, Crosby does an excellent job in expounding upon the consequences of Europeon contact with the New World and accomplishes something quite unique. Most authors bog down in the details, but Crosby brings out the big picture, and neatly places the cause and effects of biological exchange between the once separated "worlds." This book changed the way I look at discovery and its consequences. This study examines the far reaching effects from syphillis to potatoes and makes for an eye-opening and distinctly different read.

The only reason I give this 4 instead of 5 stars is I wanted more!

Alfred Crosby's *The Columbian Exchange* is a classic. To give you an idea of the importance of this book, the concept of the Columbian Exchange is now part of the historical lexicon of college and high school history textbooks. It even made a stealthy appearance of sorts in the title of Jared Diamond's recent Pulitzer Prize winning book, *Guns, Germs, and Steel*. Indeed, no history of the "Spanish Conquest" is complete without reference to the exchange of flora and fauna - especially the role of European pathogens. It was hardly surprising that Crosby's book was required reading at the National Teacher Training Institute for AP World History in 2000.

Even readers who are familiar with the concept of the Columbian Exchange can benefit from reading the original work. Crosby traces the migration across Beringia, using blood types to illustrate the homogeneity of the population. Most importantly, this population remains isolated from the communicable disease pools that periodically decimate Afro-Eurasians following the development of agriculture and cities. When European conquistadors and missionaries arrived in the 15th century, epidemics of Eurasian diseases spread like wildfire through 'virgin' populations - often traveling faster than the Europeans themselves. This demographic collapse creates the world's greatest labor (energy) shortage, which set the stage for the slave trade.

The fate of Eurasian animals transplanted to the Americas was similar. Large domesticated mammals were virtually unknown in the Americas; Eurasian horses, pigs, and sheep found a world devoid of predators and competitors. They too were 'conquistadors' that transformed New World environments and cultures. The American image of a Plains Indian on horseback is perhaps the most familiar example of a 'biological and cultural consequence' of the Columbian Exchange.

With the possible exception of syphilis, the New World's contribution to this Columbian Exchange is almost entirely beneficial to the Old World. Maize, potatoes, tomatoes, cassava, peanuts, chilies, and cacao are perhaps the best-known examples of New World foods that travel back to Eurasian and fuel a demographic surge. For many people, the Columbian Exchange revealed that the foods and images we often take as symbols of national or cultural identity are actually syncretic blends of Old and New World ingredients. Take chocolate, for example. It is perhaps the best example of food created by the Columbian Exchange. Southeast Asian sugar, 'discovered' by Crusaders in the Holy Land, was grown on Caribbean plantations by African slave labor and combined with cacao from the Americas.

As I write this review, I note that only the $65 hardback edition is listed at Amazon. Be advised, there is a less expensive paperback edition. (Ask for it!) If that fails, I would recommend Crosby's *Ecological Imperialism*, which explores the theme of biological diffusion on an even broader global scale than *The Columbian Exchange*.

As I read this book as a freshman in college, my understanding of the world's history changed. I had considered history to be an interplay of religion, culture, ideology, economics, and aggression. Dr. Crosby taught me that I also had to consider the movement of diseases, plants, and animals from one region to another. I was especially struck by the notion that the European conquest of the Americas just could not have happened as easily as it did without the deadly effect of Eurasian diseases on the Indians. Some other work might have brought this recognition, but I read _The_Columbian_Exchange_ first. I should add that the book is well-written and entertaining yet sober.

It's a shame the title of this great book isn't more enticing. This is one of the best, most informative books I have ever read. It was a page turner, really, and I learned so many things about America. This book really changes a lot of ideas and perceptions! Read it!

Mr. Crosby's book is the finest examination of the inter-relations of history and biology that exist today. While it is a work of serious historical research, it is also a great read and Mr. Crosby has been able to blend a lot of facts with an entertaining story. It should be read by anyone who is interested in American history.

Good informative book. It contains many facts about the exchange of cultures and bio-life. Consequences, for-against, and a review of what colombus started: the mixing of 2 new worlds.